Christmas Island and reflections on humanity -- Il-Gżira tal-Milied u riflessjonijiet fuq l-umanità

 

This Australian island is in the Indian Ocean some 1,500 kilometres to the north-west of the continent.  It is just under half the land area of Malta and had a population less than 2000 in 2016.  It has impressive fauna, with many endemic species, for example several species of crabs, the most important one being the red crab bearing the Island’s name, birds like the frigatebird, butterflies and others.

 

However, in Australia this island is mostly known for its places of detention.  When built between 2002 and 2003, this started being used to detain people searching for asylum, many of whom crossing the sea from Indonesia to Christmas Island, until it closed in 2018.

 

Meanwhile, many of the inmates had been transferred to similar facilities in Nauru and Manus Island in Papua New Guinea.  The Manus Island detention centre closed in 2017, after the PNG Supreme Court found it had been operating illegally.  The Nauru one was closed in 2019.

 

The Christmas Island facility was re-opened in 2019, and on 6th January 2021 news was received of a riot in the centre, with reports of fire in parts of it and disobedience.  In this facility are held temporary residents who have lost their visa due to some criminal act to which they were found guilty on the Australian continent.

 

This isn’t the first riot that occurred over the years in this place, and reasons given are rather similar.  This time, inmate lockins of 22 hours a day, lack of contact with family and other visitors as well as indeterminate periods of detention were mentioned.1 2  In other years, protests and other riots occurred for similar reasons as well as the conditions of the place, solidarity with the killing of refugee Reza Barati, amongst others.

 

The problem I see, apart from the issues mentioned, is that the general population only hears about these facilities when there is some riot, protest or some form of violence.  Many times, the underlying reasons for the hubbub that are mentioned and given are rather dry, and so hardly understandable, I cannot imagine anyone reading them would understand what the conditions leading to the unrest actually mean, and what frustrations they create, when the conditions are usually out of the control of inmates and are the daily experience for weeks, months, years.

 

I’m not surprised that many people, having read all this, end up thinking “Not again!  If they don’t like the place, why didn’t they stay where they were and not come here at all?” or “No one forced them to do the thing that got them into jail!  It’s their fault for being in this situation.”

 

By coincidence I’ve just finished reading the book No Friend but the Mountain written by Behrouz Boochani,3 a Kurd who escaped ethnic and political persecution by the Iranian authorities, who twice attempted to cross over from Indonesia to Australia by boat.  His first sea voyage almost ended tragically by drowning of him and his fellow voyagers, a similar story to the one repeatedly heard by the Maltese.  In the second voyage in 2013, Boochani and the others with him were gathered by a ship from the Australian navy, were initially held on Christmas Island and after a month were taken to detention on Manus Island where he remained until its closure in 2017, due to the Australian government’s policy that all asylum seekers be processed outside of the Australian territory.

What is not usually heard, but detailed in this book, were the human conditions he experienced, like terror, tension, hunger, lack of space, lack of activities, dirt, lack of basic sanitary facilities and the rest.

 

Imagine needing to queue up to eat, and when it gets to your turn you find that the food has finished.  Imagine you need to pass through this process three times a day.  Imagine what competition this creates between inmates.

 

Imagine you need to queue to go to the toilet.  Imagine that you find the toilet is faulty, not today or tomorrow only, but frequently.  Imagine that you then need to find somewhere a bit out of sight but still in the open to relieve yourself, even your number two, again and again.

 

Imagine that no one can come to see you, as you’re on a small island far from everywhere.  Imagine you have the opportunity of calling your loved ones just once every two days.  Imagine that when it’s your turn, you enter a room with a small number of other people, each of which has access to one telephone, which may be found working or not, and if not you have to wait another two days to try again.

 

Imagine you’d like to play a game to pass the time, as there is absolutely nothing to do.  Imagine you draw a draughts board by hand so that you might perhaps play a game of draughts, as no games are provided, and even this is confiscated by guards, as games are not permitted.

 

I could go on, but I think it’s better to read this book for yourselves.

 

It’s difficult not to conclude that the reason little information is provided about conditions of places of detention is always that the population is unable to understand the humanity of those being detained - if the conditions were well known, governments simply would not be allowed to operate facilities in this way.  I can tell you that the mind boggling conditions I read about in this book were worse than the conditions of a maximum security jail in NSW I visited for six years.

 

How long would you tolerate living in such conditions?  Would you survive a day?  Two?  How about six years?  What would you do after all this time?  Would you say “serve them right” or would you riot as well?

 

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Is-suġġett huwa probabbilment inkomprensibbli, għax l-ewwel parti hija traduzzjoni tal-isem Christmas Island, li peress li huwa nom proprju m’għandux isir traduzzjoni tiegħu skont l-aħħar regolamenti tal-Akkademja tal-Malti.  Madankollu, peress li għadna kif għaddejna mill-aħħar tas-sena, ma stajtx nirreżisti!

Din il-gżira Awstraljana tinsab fl-Oċean Indjan madwar 1,500 kilometri fuq il-Majjistral tal-kontinent.  Hija ftit inqas min-nofs tal-kobor ta’ Malta u kellha popolazzjoni ta’ inqas minn 2,000 fl-2016.  Għandha fawna impressjonanti, b’ħafna speċje endemiċi, per eżempju diversi speċje ta’ granċ bl-iktar famuż ikun il-granċ l-aħmar, għasafar bħall-frigatebird, friefet u oħrajn.

Madankollu, fl-Awstralja din il-gżira hija iktar magħrufa għall-post ta’ detenzjoni li għandha.  Meta inbena bejn l-2002 u l-2003, dan beda jintuża biex jinżammu persuni li kienu qed ifittxu l-ażil, li ħafna minnhom kienu jaqsmu bil-baħar mill-Indonesja sa’ Christmas Island, sakemm għalaq fl-2018.  

Sadattant, ġew trasferiti ħafna mid-detenuti lejn facilitajiet simili f’Nauru u Manus Island f’Papua New Guinea.  Iċ-ċentru ta’ detenzjoni ta’ Manus Island ingħalaq fl-2017, wara li l-Qorti Suprema fil-PNG sabet li kien qed jopera b’mod illegali.  Dak ta’ Nauru ngħalaq fl-2019.

Fl-2019 il-faċilità ta’ Christmas Island reġgħet infetħet, u fis-6 ta’ Jannar 2021, ħarġet l-aħbar ta’ rvell li sar fiċ-ċentru b’rapporti ta’ nirien f’partijiet minnu u nuqqas ta’ ubbidjenza.  F’din il-faċilità qed jinżammu residenti temporanji li tilfu l-visa tagħhom minħabba xi att kriminali li ġew misjuba ħatja tagħhom fuq il-kontinent Awstraljan.

Dan mhux l-ewwel irvell li sar matul is-snin f’dan il-post, u r-raġunijiet ikunu pjuttost simili.  Din id-darba ssemmew s’issa l-egħluq ta’ detenuti għal 22 siegħa kuljum, nuqqas ta’ kuntatt ma’ familjari u viżitaturi u ż-żmien indeterminat ta’ detenzjoni.1 2  Fi snin oħra, protesti u rvelli oħrajn seħħew minħabba l-kundizzjonijiet tal-post, solidarjetà mal-qtil tar-rifuġjat Reza Barati, fost l-oħrajn.

Il-problema li nara jien, apparti mill-affarijiet li semmejt, hi li l-popolazzjoni ġenerali tisma’ fuq dawn il-faċilitajiet meta jkun hemm xi rvell, xi protesta, jew ikun hemm xi vjolenza.  Ħafna drabi, ir-raġunijiet li jissemmew u jingħataw ikunu xotti ħafna, u għalkemm jinftiehmu, ma nistax nimmaġina li min jaqrahom fil-fatt jifhem xi jfissru l-kundizzjonijiet li jkunu r-raġuni għall-inkwiet, u x’frustrazzjoni li joħolqu, meta l-kundizzjonijiet ikunu barra mill-kontroll tad-detenuti u l-esperjenza ta’ kuljum għal ġimgħat, xhur, snin.

Ma niskantax li ħafna nies, wara li jaqraw dan kollu, jispiċċaw biex jaħsbu “X’reġa’ nqalalhom din id-darba?  Jekk m’għoġobhomx il-post, għax ma’ qagħdux fejn kienu u ma ġew xejn ‘l hawn”, jew “Ħadd ma qabbadhom jidħlu l-ħabs!  Tort tagħhom li spiċċaw f’din is-sitwazzjoni”.

B’kumbinazzjoni għadni kif spiċċajt naqra l-ktieb No Friend but the Mountains miktub minn Behrouz Boochani,3 Kurd li ħarab il-persekuzzjoni etnika u politika mill-awtoritajiet Iranjani, u mill-Indoneżja pprova darbtejn biex jaqsam lejn l-Awstralja fuq dgħajsa, u fl-ewwel vjaġġ bil-baħar kważi spiċċat b’traġedja ta’ għarqa għalih u r-rifuġjati oħra, storja li l-Maltin semgħu bħalha kemm ‘il darba.  Fit-tieni vjaġġ fl-2013, Boochani u l-oħrajn li kienu miegħu, wara li nġabru minn vapur navali Awstraljan, fil-bidu nżamm f’Christmas Island, u wara xahar ittieħed f’post ta’ detenzjoni ta’ Manus Island fejn baqa’ sal-għeluq tiegħu fl-2017, minħabba l-politika tal-gvern Awstraljan li applikanti għall-ażil jiġu pproċessati barra mit-territorju Awstraljan.

Li mhux soltu jinstema, imma dettaljat fil-ktieb, kienu l-kundizzjonijiet umani li għadda minnhom - bħal terrur, tensjoni, nuqqas ta’ ikel, rassa, nuqqas ta’ attivitajiet, ħmieġ, nuqqas ta’ faċilitajiet anki sanitarji u l-bqija.

Immaġina li trid tagħmel il-kju biex tiekol, u li meta jmissek issib li l-ikel ikun spiċċa.  Immaġina li trid tgħaddi minn dan il-proċess tliet darbiet kuljum.  Immaġina x’kompetizzjoni tinħoloq bejn id-detenuti.

Immaġina li trid tagħmel il-kju biex tmur għal-loki.  Immaġina li ssib li jkun bil-ħsara, mhux illum jew għada biss, imma spiss.  Immaġina li jkollok tfittex post daqsxejn barra mill-għajn imma fil-miftuħ biex tbattal, anke n-numru tnejn, darba wara l-oħra.

Immaġina li ma jista’ jiġi jarak ħadd, għax tinsab fuq gżira żgħira ‘l bogħod minn kullimkien.  Immaġina li jkollok iċ-ċans li ċċempel lil qrabatek biss darba kull jumejn.  Immaġina li meta jmissek, tidħol f’kamra ma’ grupp żgħir ta’ nies li kollha jmisshom telefon wieħed, li jista’ jsibuh jaħdem jew le, u jekk le trid tistenna jumejn oħra biex terġa’ tipprova.

Immaġina li tkun trid tilgħab xi logħba biex tgħaddi ż-żmien, għax m’hemm xejn x’tagħmel.  Immaġina li tpinġi mejda tad-drafts b’idejk biex forsi tilgħab logħba drafts, għax logħob m’hemmx, u jiġi kkunfiskat mill-gwardjani, għax logħob mhux permess.

Nista’ nibqa sejjer, imma naħseb aħjar li taqraw intom stess dan il-ktieb.

Diffiċli ma tasalx għall-konklużjoni li r-raġuni li ftit informazzjoni tingħata fuq il-kundizzjonijiet ta’ postijiet ta’ detenzjoni dejjem tkun biex il-popolazzjoni ma tifhimx l-umanità ta’ min qiegħed miżmum - kieku l-kundizzjonijiet ikunu magħrufa sew, il-gvernijiet sempliċement ma jitħallewx joperaw faċilitajiet b’dan il-mod.  Nista’ ngħidilkom jien li l-kundizzjonijiet ta’ twerriċ li qrajt f’dan il-ktieb huma agħar mill-kundizzjonijiet ta’ ħabs ta’ siġurtà massima f’NSW li għamilt sitt snin inżur.

Int kieku kemm tiflaħ tgħix f’dawn il-kundizzjonijiet?  Tissaporti ġurnata?  Tnejn?  Xi tgħidli għal sitt snin?  X’taħseb li tagħmel wara dak iż-żmien kollu?  Tgħid li ħaqqhom, jew tirvilla int ukoll?

 

 

1https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-06/reports-of-riot-at-christmas-island-detention-centre/13036366, retrieved 6/1/2021

2https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/jan/06/christmas-island-detainees-riot-and-set-fire-to-buildings-in-protest-against-conditions, retrieved 6/1/2021

3No Friend but the Mountains; Behrouz Boochani; Pan Macmillan Australia; 2018

1https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-06/reports-of-riot-at-christmas-island-detention-centre/13036366, retrieved 6/1/2021

2https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/jan/06/christmas-island-detainees-riot-and-set-fire-to-buildings-in-protest-against-conditions, retrieved 6/1/2021

3No Friend but the Mountains; Behrouz Boochani; Pan Macmillan Australia; 2018

Nuclear fusion -- Il-fużjoni nukleari

 

Some time ago I had talked about nuclear fission1, now it’s the turn of fusion.  This is a technology that has the potential of providing for all mankind’s need for energy, and then some.

 

The science of nuclear fusion is well known, as it’s the same science that powers the sun, where two groups of two nuclei of hydrogen, an elementary matter, fuse together in a chain reaction and become a single nucleus of another element helium, with a lower nuclear mass, and this difference is released as energy according to the Einstein’s famous mathematical equation E=mc2,, a huge amount of energy which we all feel from 150 million kilometres away in the form of light, heat, wind, waves and the other observable processes on this earth, including life itself.

 

This fusion is a natural process that occurs under conditions of high temperature (14 million degrees) and under high gravitational forces, at the centre of the sun.  Mankind has been trying to replicate this process artificially since the thirties, and as you might imagine, replicating the centre of the sun is anything but trivial!

 

In fact, artificial fusion has already occurred and so it has been proven that the process can be replicated on earth.  Apart from the difficulties of working with extremely high temperature and pressure, other difficulties are that in fact a higher energy is produced than used to create the necessary environment for the process, and also maintaining this process for 24 hours a day, beyond the seconds that experiments have lasted so far.

 

To date, the better known experiments did not utilise hydrogen, but its isotopes: deuterium, which is abundant in sea water, and tritium, of which only traces exist naturally and is radioactive with a half life of twelve years (by way of comparison, the radioactivity of uranium, depending upon which isotope is being considered, is measured in thousands, millions and billions of years!)2  For tritium to be used in commercial quantities, it needs to be made in a conventional nuclear reactor (that is, a fission reactor) or at the fusion plant itself, where neutrons produced as a process by-product are used to convert lithium into tritium.  Lithium is an abundant element in the earth’s crust and is also found in sea water.

 

Deuterium and tritium fuel is heated and becomes a lasma, where electrons are separated from the proton nucleus.  The plasma is lifted and has to be kept from touching the reactor’s walls in some way.  One of the methods is a magnetic field, and therefore the magnet’s design is the central feature of each fusion project.

 

The first design was the so-called tokamak, where the magnet has a toroid form (think doughnut), by the physicists Igor Tamm and the famous Andrei Sakharov.  The biggest working tokamak in the world today is the JET (Joint European Torus) in England which has been in operation since 1978.  Tokamak projects are still being built, including ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) in France which should be ready this decade, and CFETR (Chinese Fusion Engineering Test Reactor) which should be completed in 2030.3

 

A variation of the tokamak which is spherical instead of toroid is being built in England (STEP - Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production) which has just generated its first plasma in October 2020.4

A different design is the stellarator, where the magnet initially had the form of a figure of 8, but newer designs have an oval shape.  The biggest project of this type is the Wendelstein 7-X in Germany.5  Australia also has a research facility with this design at the Australian National University, called Heliac-1.6

 

Plasma can also be contained using its own inertia.  In this system, a number of powerful lasers are focussed on small pellets (millimetres in diameter) of deuterium and tritium fuel, where the outer layers explode outwards, generating a compression wave inwards to caused fusion at the centre.  Projects of this type are NIF (National Ignition Facility) in the US and others in France and China.

 

A very interesting development this year came from Australia, where a group at the University of New South Wales announced a system, HB11, which works with inertia, where the fuel used is not made of deuterium and tritium but of hydrogen (H) and Boron (B-11).  This still produces helium but does not produce neutrons that is difficult to shield from and represent a waste of energy.7  In this way, radioactivity is eliminated from the project.

 

These and others are enormous and long duration projects, where the industry joke is that every time you ask an insider when is it expected we’d have a functioning electricity power station based on nuclear fusion, the answer is always in thirty years time, any time the question is asked!

 

We live in hope that this development occurs in our lifetime, as a source of practically limitless energy represents a substantial jump in the capabilities of mankind and can lead to massive developments in many areas.

 

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Ftit ilu kont tkellimt fuq il-fissjoni nukleari1, issa jmiss il-fużjoni.  Din hija teknoloġija għandha l-potenzjal li tipprovdi l-enerġija kollha li l-bniedem għandu bżonn, u bil-wisq iktar.

 

Ix-xjenza tal-fużjoni nukleari hija magħrufa sew, għax hija l-istess xjenza li tħaddem ix-xemx, fejn żewġ gruppi ta’ żewġ nuklei tal-materja elementari l-idroġenu jagħmlu fużjoni b’katina ta’ reazzjonijiet, u jsiru nukleu wieħed ta’ element ieħor l-elju, b’massa nukleari inqas, u dan in-nuqqas jiġi kkonvertit f’enerġija skont l-ekwazzjoni matematika famuża ta’ Einstein E=mc2, enerġija kbira mmens li l-effett tagħha inħossuha minn 150 miljun kilometru ‘l bogħod fid-dawl, is-sħana, ir-riħ, il-mewġ u l-proċessi l-oħra osservabbli fuq din id-dinja, inkluża l-ħajja nnifisha.

 

Din il-fużjoni hija proċess naturali li jseħħ taħt kundizzjonijiet ta’ temperatura għolja (14-il miljun gradi) u forza ta’ gravità kbira, fiċ-ċentru tax-xemx.  Il-bniedem ilu mit-tletinijiet jipprova jirreplika dan il-proċess b’mod artifiċjali, u kif tistgħu tobsru, mhux daqs tazza ilma biex tirreplika l-ġewwieni tax-xemx!

 

Fil-fatt, il-fużjoni b’mod artifiċjali diġà seħħ u għalhekk ġie ppruvat li jista’ jiġi rreplikat fuq din id-dinja.  Apparti d-diffikultajiet li taħdem b’temperaturi u pressjonijiet tant għoljin, d-diffikultajiet oħra kbar huma li fil-fatt tieħu enerġija iktar milli tkun użajt biex tikkreja l-ambjent neċessarju għall-proċess, u wkoll li tmantni l-proċess għal 24 siegħa kuljum, iktar mis-sekondi li l-esperimenti s’issa damu.

 

S’issa, l-esperimenti l-iktar magħrufa ma sarux bl-idroġenu, imma minn isotopi tiegħu: id-dewterju, li huwa abbundanti fl-ilma baħar; u t-tritju, li traċċi żgħar biss jinstabu b’mod naturali u huwa radjuattiv b’nofs ħajja ta’ tnax-il sena (bħala tqabbil, ir-radjutattività tal-uranju, li tiddependi fuq liema isotopi tiegħu qiegħdin nikkunsidraw, titkejjel bl-eluf, miljunu u biljuni ta’ snin!)2  Biex it-tritju jkun jintuża f’livelli kummerċjali, jrid jiġi magħmul f’reattur konvenzjonali nukleari (jiġifieri tal-fissjoni) jew f’impjant ta’ fużjoni nnifsu, fejn newtroni prodotti bħala parti mill-proċess jintużaw biex jikkonvertu l-litju fi tritju.  Il-litju huwa element li huwa abbundanti fil-qoxra tad-dinja u jinstab ukoll fil-baħar.

 

Il-fuwil ta’ dewterju u tritji jissaħħan u jsir plasma, fejn l-elettroni jinfirdu min-nukleu ta’ protoni.  Il-plasma jiġi merfugħ u miżmum milli jmiss mal-ħitan tar-reattur b’xi mod.  Wieħed mill-modi huwa permezz ta’ erja manjetika, u għalhekk id-disinn tal-kalamita huwa l-fus ta’ kull proġett ta’ fużjoni.

 

L-ewwel disinn kien wieħed imsejjaħ tokamak, fejn il-kalamita tkun f’forma ta’ torojd (immaġina downut), mill-fiżiċisti Igor Tamm u l-famuż Andrei Sakharov.  L-ikbar tokamak fid-dinja jaħdem illum huwa JET (Joint European Torus) fl-Ingilterra li ilu jaħdem mill-1978.  Proġetti b’tokamak għadhom jinbnew, inklużi ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) fi Franza li għandu jitlesta f’dan id-dekadu, u CFETR (Chinese Fusion Engineering Test Reactor) li għandu jitlesta fl-2030.3

 

Varjazzjoni waħda tat-tokamak li huwa tond minflok torojd qed jinbena fl-Ingilterra (STEP - Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production) li għadu kif iġġenera l-ewwel plasma f’Ottubru 2020.4

 

Disinn daqsxejn differenti huwa stellarator, fejn il-kalamita fil-bidu kellha forma tan-numru 8 imma disinji ġodda kellhom is-sura ovali.  L-ikbar proġett ta’ dan it-tip huwa l-Wendelstein 7-X fil-Ġermanja5.  L-Awstralja għandha faċilità ta’ riċerka b’dan id-disinn fl-Australian National University jismu Heliac-1.6

 

Il-plasma jista’ wkoll jiġi miżmum bl-inerzja tiegħu innifsu.  B’din is-sistema, numru ta’ lejżers qawwija jiġu ffukati fuq pelits żgħar (b’dijametru ta’ millimetri) bil-fjuwil ta’ dewterju u tritju, fejn il-faxxi ta’ barra jisplodu ‘l barra u jiġġeneraw mewġa ta’ kompressjoni ‘l ġewwa sabiex iseħħ il-fużjoni fiċ-ċentru.  Proġetti ta’ dan it-tip huma NIF (National Ignition Facility) fl-Amerika, u oħrajn fi Franza u ċ-Ċina.

 

Żvilupp interessanti ħafna f’dan il-qasam ġie din is-sena mill-Awstralja, fejn grupp mill-Università ta’ New South Wales ħabbar sistema , imsejħa HB11, li taħdem bl-inerzja, fejn il-fuwil ma jkunx ta’ dewterju u tritju iżda tal-idroġenu (H) u l-boron (B-11).  Dan xorta jipproduċi l-elju iżda ma jipproduċix newtroni li hu diffiċli li tagħmel tarka kontrihom u jirrappreżentaw ħela ta’ enerġija.7  Għalhekk jiġi eliminat ir-radjuazzjoni mill-proġett.

 

Dawn u oħrajn bħalhom huma proġetti enormi u fit-tul, li ċ-ċajta fl-industrija hi li kull darba li tistaqsi ‘l min hu midħla tagħhom meta jistennew li se jkollna impjant tal-elettriku ġej mill-fużjoni, ir-risposta dejjem tkun tletin sena oħra, tistaqsihom meta tistaqsihom!

 

Nisperaw li f’ħajjitna din il-ħaġa sseħħ, għax sors ta’ enerġija prattikament bla limitu tirrappreżenta qabża sostanzjali fil-kapaċitajiet tal-bniedem u tista’ twassal għal żviluppi kbar f’ħafna oqsma.

 

 

1L-Enerġija Nukleari, The Voice of the Maltese, Nru. 166, p10

2https://web.evs.anl.gov/uranium/faq/uproperties/faq5.cfm, retrieved 16/12/2020

3https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-fusion-power.aspx, retrieved 16/12/2020

4https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201214-the-uks-quest-for-affordable-fusion-by-2040, retrieved 16/12/2020

5https://www.businessinsider.com.au/germany-is-turning-on-its-monster-stellarator-2015-10, retrieved 16/12/2020

6https://science.anu.edu.au/research/field-sites-facilities/australian-plasma-fusion-research-facility, retrieved 6/12/2020

7https://www.labroots.com/trending/chemistry-and-physics/16964/quicker-path-fusion-power-australian-scientists-claimed-astonishing-breakthrough, retrieved 6/12/2020

1L-Enerġija Nukleari, The Voice of the Maltese, Nru. 166, p10

2https://web.evs.anl.gov/uranium/faq/uproperties/faq5.cfm, retrieved 16/12/2020

3https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-fusion-power.aspx, retrieved 16/12/2020

4https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201214-the-uks-quest-for-affordable-fusion-by-2040, retrieved 16/12/2020

5https://www.businessinsider.com.au/germany-is-turning-on-its-monster-stellarator-2015-10, retrieved 16/12/2020

6https://science.anu.edu.au/research/field-sites-facilities/australian-plasma-fusion-research-facility, retrieved 6/12/2020

7https://www.labroots.com/trending/chemistry-and-physics/16964/quicker-path-fusion-power-australian-scientists-claimed-astonishing-breakthrough, retrieved 6/12/2020