Religion
and State
Most of you will be
aware of a recent significant development in the Middle East. The
Sunni organisation Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) has
just proclaimed a caliphate in territory captured in Shia-leaning
Syria and Iraq. Moreso, it has proclaimed the chief of the
organisation, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, as the new caliph, the leader for
Muslims everywhere.1
A caliph is the
religious and political leader for an Islamic state (caliphate). He
or she governs guided by Sharia (law based on principles in the
Quran and the example set by the prophet Mohammed), and the
Constitution of Medina (a peace agreement signed in Medina, part of
modern Saudi Arabia, between the prophet Mohammed and other groups
(including Christians), establishing a single nation - the Ummah,
with rights and obligations of all communities spelt out).
Malta has had two main
brushes with a caliphate in its history. The first came when the
islands were ruled from 870AD by the Aghlabids during the Abbasid
caliphate period, and later by the Fatimid caliphate, with Arab rule
lasting until the Norman invasion in 1091. Then during the time of
the Knights of St John came a number of attacks by naval commanders
including Dragut from the Turkish Ottoman caliphates, culminating in
the Great Siege of Malta in 1565, which to Malta's pride and
Christian Europe's relief resulted in a comprehensive victory to the
locals.
The main point of the
caliphate, is that the temporal rule of the state is based on
principles established by Islam. This approach to the fabric of the
state is not unique to Islam. In Europe, the Church was the state in
much of what is today Italy, even up to very recently. Indeed, the
Maltese constitution still states that Roman Catholicism is the
religion of the state, that its religious authorities have the right
to teach about which principles are right and wrong, and that Roman
Catholic religious teaching at school is compulsory2.
It is however clear
even in Malta that principles of secular liberalism are becoming
widely accepted by the populace. For example, it would have been
unthinkable at the time the Maltese constitution was drafted that
Malta would eventually legislate to allow divorce and renegotiate the
precedence of the Church courts over civil courts on marriage
matters3.
The constitution of
Australia goes further, preventing the Commonwealth from passing a
law establishing a religion, or imposing religious observance,
prohibiting the free exercise of any religion or requiring a
religious test as a qualification for a Commonwealth office4.
Turkey was the country
that had abolished the last caliphate, that of the Ottomans, in 1924,
and since then has been a secular state. However as a general rule,
countries with Islam as the main practiced religion have a higher
proportion than in the West of citizens that call for political rule
to be based on the (Islamic) religion. The Arab Spring has seen a
tension between those who crave for more and those who crave for less
religion entrenched in the state. This may be seen very clearly in
places such as Egypt.
In the post-Christian
Western tradition I come from, I think it may be said that people
have realised that while it is fine to be inspired by the principles
of their erstwhile religion when constructing the fabric of the
state, it is wise to separate the religious institution from the
state to retain social harmony. Common ground can be more easily
found in universally acceptable, secular, values and declarations
such as the UN Universal Declaration on Human Rights, adopted in
19485.
It remains to be seen whether other nations coming from a Muslim
tradition will eventually come to the same conclusion.
1http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2014/s4035818.htm,
retrieved 1/7/2014
2Constitution
of Malta, Article 2
3http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20140222/local/Church-State-separation-is-unquestionable-.507768,
retrieved 1/7/2014
4Constitution
of Australia, Chapter 5, Section 115
5http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml,
retrieved 1/7/2014.
---------------------------------------------------------
Ir-Reliġjon
u l-Istat
Ħafna minnkom aktarx
jafu bi żvilupp sinjifikanti fil-Lvant Nofsani. L-organizzazzjoni
Sunni msejħa l-Istat Islamiku tal-Iraq u l-Lvant (ISIS) għadu kif
iddikjara kalifat f'territorju maqbud fis-Sirja u l-Iraq li jxaqilbu
lejn ix-Xiti. Iktar minn hekk, ipproklamat ukoll il-mexxej
tal-organizzazzjoni, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, bħala l-kalif, il-mexxej
għall-Musulmani kullimkien1.
Kalif huwa mexxej
reliġjuż u politiku għal stat Iżlamiku (kalifat). Hu/hi
jiggverna/tiggverna immexxi/ja mix-Xarija (liġi bbażata fuq
il-prinċipji tal-Koran u l-eżempju tal-profeta Muħammed) u
l-Kostituzzjoni ta' Medina (ftehim ta' paċi iffirmat fil-Medina,
parti mis-Sawdi Arabja tal-lum, bejn il-profeta Muħammed u gruppi
oħra (bħall-Insara), li stabbiliet nazzjon wieħed - l-Ummaħ,
bid-drittijiet u d-dmirijiet tal-komunitajiet kollha mniżżlin).
Malta messet ma'
kalifat darbtejn fl-istorja tagħha. L-ewwel darba kien meta
l-gżejjer kienu mmexxija mis-sena 870 w.K. mill-Aglabidi fil-perjodu
tal-kalifat Abbasid, u wara mill-kalifat Fatimid, bil-ħakma Għarbija
tintemm mal-invażjoni Normanna tal-1091 w.K. Imbagħad fi żmien
il-Kavallieri ta' San Ġwann kien hemm numru ta' attakki minn
kmandanti navali inkluż Dragut mill-kalifat Ottoman tat-Torok, li
laħqu l-quċċata tagħhom fl-Assedju l-Kbir ta' Malta tal-1565
w.K., li l-Maltin kburin li wassal għal rebħa sħiha għalihom u
serħan il-moħħ għall-Ewropa Nisranija.
Il-punt prinċipali
tal-kalifat hu li it-tmexxija sekulari tal-istat huwa bbażat fuq
prinċipji stabbiliti tal-Islam. Dan il-mudell ta' tmexxija mhux
uniku għall-Islam. Fl-Ewropa, il-Knisja kienet l-istat f'parti
kbira ta' dak li llum hija l-Italja, anke sa mhux ħafna ilu.
Tassew, il-kostituzzjoni Malti anke llum tgħid li il-Kattoliċiżmu
Ruman huwa r-reliġjon tal-istat, li l-awtoritajiet reliġjużi
għandhom id-dritt li jgħallmu liemu prinċipji huma tajba u ħżiena,
u li tagħlim reliġjuż Kattoliku Ruman irid isir fl-iskejjel2.
Madankollu huwa ċar
anke f'Malta li l-prinċipji sekulari liberali qed jiġu aċċettati
mill-poplu. Per eżempju, ħadd ma kien jobsor meta l-kostituzzjoni
Maltija kienet qed tinkiteb li Malta eventwalment kienet tgħaddi
liġi li tippermetti d-divorzju u tirrinegozja l-preċedenza
tal-qrati tal-Knisja fuq dawk tal-istat fuq kwistjonijiet ta' żwieġ3.
Il-kostituzzjoni
tal-Awstralja tmur iktar minn hekk, ma tħallix lill-Commonwealth
li tgħaddi liġi li tistabbilixxi xi reliġjon, li timponi li
reliġjon, li ma tħallix li ssegwi xi reliġjon jew li jkun hemm xi
test reliġjuz bħala kwalifika għal impjieg tal-Commonwealth4.
It-Turkija
kien il-pajjiż li abolixxa l-aħħar kalifat, dak tal-Ottomani,
fl-1924, u minn dakinhar kien stat sekulari. Però
bħala regola ġenerali, pajjiżi predomantament Islamiċi għandhom
proporzjoni iktar għoli minn pajjiżi tal-Punent ta' ċittadini li
jridu tmexxija politika li tkun ibbażata fuq ir-reliġjon
(Islamika). Ir-Rebbiegħa Għarbija kixfet tensjoni bejn dawk li
jridu iktar u dawk li jridu inqas reliġjon imdaħħal fl-istat. Dan
jidher ċar f'postijiet bħall-Eġittu.
Fit-tradizzjoni
post-Kristjana tal-Punent li jien niġi minnu, naħseb li jista'
jingħad li n-nies t'hemm fehmu li għalkemm huwa tajjeb li tkun
ispirat mill-prinċipji tar-reliġjon li kellhom meta tibni l-qafas
tal-istat, ikun għaqli li tifred l-istituzzjoni reliġjuża
mill-istat sabiex tinżamm l-armonija soċjali. Huwa iktar faċli li
ssib qbil universali f'valuri u dikjarazzjonijiet sekulari bħal dawk
tad-Dikjarazzjoni Universali fuq id-Drittijiet tal-Bniedem
tan-Nazzjonijiet Uniti, li ġiet adottata fl-19485.
Wieħed irid jara jekk pajjiżi oħra li jiġu minn tradizzjoni
Musulmana eventwalment jaslux għall-istess konklużjoni.
1http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2014/s4035818.htm,
retrieved 1/7/2014
2Constitution
of Malta, Article 2
3http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20140222/local/Church-State-separation-is-unquestionable-.507768,
retrieved 1/7/2014
4Constitution
of Australia, Chapter 5, Section 115
5http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml,
retrieved 1/7/2014.
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